(1) Commutative Property of Multiplication - YourTeacher.com
Commutative is changing the order, even in a problem with 3 or more terms.
You commute to work, and pass the gas station, the library, and Walmart.
On the way home, you decide to go by the library first, then Walmart, then the gas station.
You commuted in a different route.
(2) Associative Property of Multiplication - YourTeacher.com
Associative is changing the grouping. 9 x (3 x 6) = 9 x (6 x 3) is not changing the grouping. That is an example of the commutative property.
Jack and Tom are your best friends. Sometimes you go to Jack's house; sometimes you go to Tom's house. Sometimes Tom and Jack go to each other's houses. You can associatewith either friend, and you are all still friends no matter what grouping you are in.You, Tom, and Jack.
(3) Commutative and Associative Property - MuchoMath (Professor Perez and Charlie)
(4) In this video, you can pause and work out the problems yourself, then see if you are right.
This post covers only the first few pages of Module 4, but it is looong since I wanted to cover it well.
So this will be Part A, the introduction, and Part B will cover 3 of the 6 phyla in more detail. Part C will cover the last 3 phyla in this module.
There's a fungus among us! =) (1)p. 97-101a,General Characteristics of Fungi
Although mushrooms are the most common fungi, there are many other kinds as well. Some fungi are pathogenic (disease-causing), but there are also helpful fungi: some fungi are used in making cheese, others are used in baking, and even some in medicine.
Most fungi are multicellular; a few are single-celled. But whether multicellular or unicellular, their cells are all eukaryotes (each cell having membrane-bound organelles, each organelle performing a particular job). Their cells usually have many nuclei.
Most of the organisms in this kingdom are heterotrophs (can't make their own food).
Some of these heterotrophic fungi are parasitic (feed on living matter), but most are saprophytic (feed on dead matter). The saprophytic fungi are decomposers that promote the decay of once-living matter. Otherwise, leaves would pile up each fall year after year, not to mention dead animals, and other things that decompose.
►(Listen or Read this 2-minute Creation Moment with Ian Taylor)
Saprophytic or parasitic, they both digest their food outside of their bodies. They secrete a chemical onto the food that digests the food before it is ingested (eaten). The digested food is then absorbed into the cell of the fungus.
Extracellular (outside the cell) digestion can be beneficial to other organisms that can often absorb some of the nutrients before the fungus has a chance to absorb them.
♦Read How Fungi Get their Food
In addition to other various means of reproduction, the one means of reproduction all fungi have in common is by making spores.
Most fungi are multicellular, and will grow a specialized structure for that particular type of fungus for the purpose of producing spores.
For example, a mushroom has basidia on which their basidiospores form. (see image)
A spore print (see image) can be made by laying a mushroom cap on paper for several hours or overnight, covered by a bowl or jar to prevent air currents from disturbing the spores.
Here is a video of a puffball mushroom's spores. Its spores can be harmful if breathed in. They have a hole in the top and the spores puff out like smoke from a chimney. =)
The general structure of a mushroom is easy to see. There is the cap, which has the gills underneath (where the spores grow), and the stalk which is called the stipe.
This is all called the fruiting body. (seeimage)
What is not seen is actually the most amazing. Some may not realize a mushroom's main structure is underground.
This underground root-like structure is called the mycelium (my see' lee um). (see image)
It kind of looks like a whole bunch of tangled roots.
It typically is ten to twenty times larger than its stalk, but I've read that it can be as large as a soccer field! The mycelium are not roots.
It does not pull nutrients and water from the soil (like roots do) to be transported to the rest of the plant because the mycelium is the main part of the plant. The mushroom's stalk and cap exist only at a certain stage, and are just an extension of the fungus's main body - the mycelium.
If you think about the fruit on a vine or tree, you can easily understand that the fruiting body is just something that grows periodically from the mycelium.
There are septate hypha that have individual cells separated from one another by cell walls. There is usually a pore (opening) through which cytoplasm can be passed between cells. Nonseptate hypha looks like one long cell. There are no walls.
Both types of hyphae (hi' fee) have nuclei which are represented by the dark spots in the hyphae.
Remember that protists and monerans have cells that group together in colonies, but the cells do not exchange cytoplasm. Plants and animals are multicellular, but their individual cells are completely separate and do not exchange cytoplasm.
But in kingdom Fungi, the cells are not completely separate.
In the video, she says coenocytic threads. This is the same as nonseptate.
There are many different hyphae that perform different tasks. If a hypha is part of the mycelium (the part that grows below the soil), it is called a rhizoid hypha.
The job of rhizoid hyphae is to support the fungus and digest the food. These hyphae are considered the main body of the fungus.
An aerial hypha is not embedded in the main body of the fungus, and as its name implies, it sticks up in the air. It looks like a stem.
Aerial hyphae can do one of three things:
(1) absorb oxygen from the air
(2) produce spores
(3) asexually reproduce to form new filaments (hyphae)
♦If an aerial hypha asexually reproduces more hyphae, it is called a stolon (see image) -- a runner that grows along the ground, producing more offspring.
♦If an aerial hypha produces spores, it is specified as a sporophore.
Sporophores can be:
(A) a sporangiophore (seeimage) if its spores are formed within an enclosusre,
(B) aconidiophore (seeimage) if the sporophore's spores are not formed within an enclosure. ►(Source of images - scroll up) ►(Something silly to help you remember:
"Angie" will form spores in an enclosure. A con who is an idiot will not form spores in an enclosure.) I did warn you it was silly! lol.
Not all fungi have all these structures, however.
►Awesome diagram of what bread mold looks like up close.
Bread Mold
If a fungus feeds on a living organism, a hypha can actually enter the cells of the living organism and draw nutrients directly from the cytoplasm of the living organism's cells. This kind of hypha is an extension of the mycelium and is called a haustorium (haw stor' ee uhm) (see image, source)
Since it feeds on a living host, this kind of fungus is parasitic.
Now that you are more familiar with the terminology, watch this video of how fungi obtain food. Listen for the different kinds of symbiosis that you learned in Module 3.
(2) p. 101,Reproduction in Kingdom Fungi
►All fungi reproduce by making spores. Some fungi also reproduce in other ways, as well.
♦The sexual reproduction involves structures called fruiting bodies, as a result of compatible hyphae.
Once the fruiting body is formed, it grows out of the mycelium and releases its spores. The mushroom is just part of the fruiting body of the mycelium of a type of fungus.
♦Some sexual reproduction does not lead to a fruiting body; it just produces a new hypha.
Time lapse of a fruiting body: Psilocybe cubensis
Amanita muscaria
♦Asexual spore formation is accomplished by a hypha that becomes either a sporangiophore or a conidiophore.
♦There are other means of asexual reproduction that does not involve spores. These involve hyphae cells in the mycelium that cause the mycelium to grow. Also the cells within a stolon will reproduce asexually, causing the stolon to grow. The stolon will reproduce into hyphae that will form a new mycelium of a new fungus. This is repeated, often causing long chains of fungi, all linked together by stolons.
(3) p. 102,Classification in Kingdom Fungi
There are six phyla in kingdom Fungi, and as I read these and sounded out the pronunciations, I kept seeing "mycota" on the end. My coat... And then more words came into my mind.
►Here are some silly phrases to help you remember the phyla in the kingdom Fungi: Basidiomycota (buh sid' ee oh my koh' tuh) Like a bus city o(n) my coat. Ascomycota (ask' uh my koh' tuh) Ask-a my coat! Zygomycota (zye' goh my koh' tuh) Zygo, my coat. (Who names their coat?) Chytridiomycota (kye trid' ee oh my koh' tuh) Kye tridd-y o(n) my coat. Deuteromycota (doo' ter oh my koh' tuh) Dude, yer o(n) my coat! (my favorite one) Myxomycota (myk' so my koh' tuh) Mike, sew my coat. (He'd have to after all the people who have been on it, even a city of buses!)
I added the pronunciation marks the way the man pronounces it on the multimedia CD, which is different than the way it is written in your text book. However, just practicing and getting familiar with one way of pronouncing these is more important than which pronunciation you choose.
After practicing the pronunciations so you will recognize them, sometimes pronounced a little differently in this video, watch this overview of kingdom Fungi. Part 1 Skip up to 0:50.
Part 2 Ignore the part near the end about evolution. =(
p. 69-70 Subkingdom Algae is divided into five phyla (pl. of phylum).
Each of the phyla for subkingdom Algae has one or more examples in the genus category given in the text.
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species
The division for Algae is based on these three things:
habitat - they can live in marine (salt) water, or in fresh water.
organization (single or multicellular) - Many algae exist as individual cells, but most form simple colonies, although a few colonies are quite complex. Either way, their cells are all eukaryotic (having organelles, each with their own type of job).
type of cell wall - what it is made of.
(1) p. 84-85, Subkingdom Algae
The members of subkingdom Algae can produce their own food by photosynthesis. So why aren't they plants? According to an email from Apologia:
"When it comes to classification, there is no single rule that applies, and not every biologist agrees. You probably remember that they don't even agree on how many kingdoms there are. Algae, even multicellular algae, lack any of the structures of a plant. They don't have true leaves, stems, or roots. The blades in a kelp for instance have no veins to distribute nutrients, and both sides of a kelp blade are identical. The stipe on a kelp, while it looks like a stem, does not contain any of the vascular structures (xylem or phloem) to carry nutrients from the soil, and the holdfast just anchors the organism to the sea floor and does not have roots to draw nutrients.
In addition, some of the unicellular algae (like dinoflagellates), while photosynthetic, have flagella for movement more like an animal.
The sum of all of these distinctions is why algae and plants are considered to be parts of different kingdoms."
So that is why. =D
Algae can live in warm or cold marine water (salt water) and in fresh water. This is the habitatcategory. Algae is a type of plankton. There are two groups - zooplankton and phytoplankton.
Zooplankton are tiny floating organisms that are either small animals or protozoa.
Phytoplankton are tiny floating photosynthetic organisms, primarily algae.
Based on these definitions, what we studied in the first half of Module 3 has mostly been zooplankton.
Now we will learn about phytoplankton.
We know that grass, trees, and other green plants produce the by-product oxygen during the process of photosynthesis. (To the plant, it is a by-product; they produce it, but don't need it.)
But did you know that the majority of photosynthesis done on earth is not done by green plants, but is done by phytoplankton!?! Phytoplankton (which is mainly algae) produce about three-fourths of all the oxygen on earth!
So I don't really think we'll run out of oxygen if someone cuts down a tree. =)
Algae are also a major food source for many aquatic (water-living) organisms.
Humans have also found quite a few uses for algae. Some algae is used as food in some parts of the world, and some is used as food additives. One substance in a type of algae is used to thicken things like ice cream, pudding, and dressings. There are other products made from algae as well: iodine, vitamins, minerals, paper, floor polish, cosmetics, toothpaste, and more.
Many algae exist as individual cells, but most form simple colonies, although a few colonies are quite complex. This is the organizationcategory.
A colony is sometimes called a thallus (pl. is thalli) - the body of a plant-like organism that is not divided into leaves, roots, or stems.
When algae reproduce so rapidly that they essentially take over their habitat, the water appears to be the same color as the algae themselves. This is called an algal bloom.
examples:genusCosmarium or Desmid (same picture for both in the textbook), Chloroella, and Spirogyra
If you will remember the name of this phylum, Chlorophyta, it may help you remember that the most visible feature of these algae is that they contain the pigment chlorophyll, which is green. Therefore they are referred to as green algae, even though most of them appear yellowish green because of other yellowish pigments present called carotenoids (kuh rot' en oydz).
Like Euglena, members of this phylum store the chlorophyll in organelles called chloroplasts.
Other main features of this phylum are that its members live mostly in fresh water, so you likely won't find them in the ocean.
And they have cell walls made of celulose (sel' yoo lohs), which is composed of certain types of sugar to feed the organism.
The following are green algae from three different genera (pl. of genus) from the phylum Chlorophyta.
phylum Chlorophyta, genus Chloroella. (see images)
These single-celled organisms clump together, but are not really in colonies.
This has been made into vitamins.
phylum Chlorophyta, genus Cosmarium or Desmid.
(see images here and here)
These single-celled organisms sometimes form simple colonies, but mostly exist as individual cells.
They are characterized by the "pinched" look in the middle.
phylum Chlorophyta, genus Spirogyra.
(see images) These single-celled organisms form colonies, called filaments, that can reach up to two feet long.
Green Algae
I don't think they "communicate" w/ one another. I believe it is a God-given instinct that they know exactly what to do.
phylum Chlorophyta, genus Desmid or Cosmarium
phylum Chlorophyta, genus Spirogyra form thread-like colonies
This phylum Chrysophyta has more than 1,000 different species which are collectively called diatoms.
These algae are found in both marine and fresh water.
They are a unique type of algae, mostly because their cell walls are composed of silicon dioxide, which is the main component of glass. This makes their cell wall very hard and protective. This is why it remains hard long after the diatom dies. When these remains are clumped together, they form a crumbly, abrasive substance called diatomaceous earth (die' uh tuh may' shus), or diatomite.
There are huge deposits of diatomaceous earth in most regions of the world. Creation scientists think this may have happened at the time of the Flood. (Genesis 6-9) Scientists who do not believe the Bible have a hard time explaining these deposits of diatomaceous earth.
Diatomaceous earth is quite useful. It is used for filtering liquids, or as an abrasive. (for example, in toothpaste.) Insects can be killed by crawling over a thin coating of jagged diatomaceous earth.
See the diatoms that the kids in Michelle's class saw.
phylum Chrysophyta, genus Dynobryon
Another genus, Dynobryon (see images), is also a member of phylum Chrysophyta. These contain algae that form colonies. They usually contain a few cells called holdfasts, which can anchor them to objects in the water, like rocks. These holdfasts form long strands so that the organism can stay in one place.
examples: genus Peridinium (pehr' uh din' ee uhm), and genus/species Gymnodinium brevis (also called Karenia brevis)
Phylum Pyrrophyta is made up of a group of single-celled creatures often called dinoflagellates (see images), because most species have two flagella, one of which is in a groove that encircles the cell. These organisms are found in marine waters.
Some dinoflagellates are heterotrophic, obtaining their food from other sources, and some are photosynthetic, making their own food.
The most important thing about dinoflagellates is that certain species frequently bloom in nutrient-rich waters. The species Gymnodinium brevis (see images) (also called Karenia brevis by some scientists) are reddish-brown in color, and their bloom turns the water red.
These algal blooms are called red tides. (see images)
These red tides are deadly to most to marine life, but mollusks, clams, and oysters are immune. However, the toxin emitted by the dinoflagellate does build up in their bodies. Eating clams, oysters, or mollusks that have been exposed to red tide can be poisonous. Not only to humans, but other marine life that eat them.
Seafood restaurants do not serve these dishes when a red tide occurs in the area from where they get their supplies.
These tides are harmful to humans to even be around! It can cause burning eyes and respiratory problems.
Red Tide in Cocoa Beach, Fl, in late 2007
She says, "Look at all those single-celled, microscopic, dinoflagellate Karenia brevis."
What a mouthful. =) (Remember, this is the same as Gymnodinium brevis.)
We have learned that kingdom Protista includes eukaryotic organisms made up of a single cell, or simple association of single-celled organisms.
But we have also seen that every classification rule has its exceptions. We often see the words "usually" or "most" as we learn about biology.
The following two phyla are made up of multi-celled organisms instead of single-celled.
(5) p. 89-90, Phylum Phaeophyta
Phylum: Phaeophyta
Habitat: cold marine waters
Organization: multiple cells
Cell Wall: cellulose and alginic acid
examples: genus Macrocystis (mah' kroh sis' tus), genus Fū'cus
Phylum Phaeophyta is made up of about 1,500 species of multicellular organisms that live in the cold ocean waters. A multicellular organism is not the same as a colony of single-celled organisms.
►Single-celled organisms, although they may sometimes live in colonies, are not dependent on one another. They can live on their own if separated from the colony.
►Multicellular organisms have individual cells that are designed for a specific task. The cells work together, each performing the task for which it was designed. They need each other to survive. A single cell that is separated from a multicellular creature usually cannot exist on its own.
Members of phylum Phaeophyta, also called brown algae, look a lot like plants.
Species within the genus Macrocystis are commonly called kelp or seaweed. (seeimages) Kelp and most other members of phylum Phaeophyta form holdfasts (see image) to anchor themselves to rocks at the bottom of the ocean. Some kelp can grow as long as 100 meters, growing as fast as 2 feet per day under ideal conditions.
If you enjoy ice cream, pudding, dressings, etc, you can be thankful that God made the members of this phylum. One of their unique characteristics is that their cell walls contain alginic acid, commonly called algin. This is extracted from brown algae and used to make a thickening agent in these kinds of foods.
Algin is used in other products as well.
Kelp is harvested in many parts of the world for food.
Another kind of seaweed nicknamed Turkish Washcloth (see images) is known for being rich in carrageenan, which is another thickening agent.
Phylum Phaeophyta, genus Fū'cus (see images) has species that are often called rockweed. These algae are thick and feel leathery. They live in shallow water along the shore, and are about one to two feet long. On these alga (singular of algae) you can see air bladders, which fill with air to allow the organism to float on top of the water.
example: genus Corallina (kor' uh lee' nuh), genus Hildenbrandia
The last major phylum in subkingdom Algae is phylum Rhodophyta.
These are found in warm marine (salt) waters.
Members of this phylum are often called red algae because of their striking red color. (Do not confuse this with the dinoflagellates that cause red tides.)
Phylum Rhodophyta, Genus/speciesCorallina officinalis (see images) is often called "coral weed." It looks and feels a lot like coral.
From Phylum Rhodophyta,the genus Hildenbrandia(see images) are thin algae that grow in clumps (the red splotches) on underwater surfaces.
At The Microscopic Museum, see The Algae Exhibit. He always has such awesome pictures.
See diatoms, phytoplankton, phaeocystis, and more.
A video from TVschoolhouse.com. This is a great website!
Click to watch a 10-minute video about good and bad bacteria. This is a good review of Module 2.
In the video, he talks about 3 kinds of bacteria - parasites, saprophytes, and autotrophs.
Why doesn't he mention heterotrophs?
Because parasites and saprophytes are the two kinds of heterotrophs - bacteria which do not make their own food.
What is mentioned that is made from bacteria that can save lives?
Also learn about how bacteria take in food thru their cell walls.
Keep watching! =)
